Indian History Study Guide

Indian History is one of the most important subjects for competitive examinations in India. From UPSC Civil Services to SSC, Banking, Railway, and State PSC exams, questions from Indian History form a significant portion of the General Studies paper. Understanding the historical evolution of Indian civilization helps candidates grasp not only factual knowledge but also the cultural, social, and political foundations of modern India.

The study of Indian History is conventionally divided into three major periods: Ancient India, Medieval India, and Modern India. Each period has its own distinctive characteristics, key events, important personalities, and lasting contributions to Indian civilization. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of all three periods, highlighting the most important topics and facts relevant for competitive examinations.

Indian History spans over 5,000 years, from the earliest settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization to the complex modern nation-state that India is today. This vast timeline encompasses the rise and fall of great empires, the development of major religions, significant cultural achievements, colonial rule, and the inspiring struggle for independence. Each phase has left an indelible mark on the Indian identity and continues to influence contemporary society.

2.1 Prehistoric Period and Stone Age

The earliest evidence of human habitation in India dates back to approximately 500,000 years ago during the Paleolithic Age. The Stone Age in India is divided into three phases: Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age). Important Paleolithic sites include Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, famous for its rock shelters and cave paintings. The Mesolithic period saw the development of microliths, while the Neolithic period witnessed the beginning of agriculture and permanent settlements.

2.2 Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE)

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest urban civilizations. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River and its tributaries, covering present-day Pakistan and northwestern India. Key features included:

• Urban Planning: Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had advanced town planning with grid-pattern streets, sophisticated drainage systems, and multi-story buildings.
• Great Bath: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro indicates the importance of ritual bathing.
• Trade and Economy: Evidence of extensive trade with Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
• Script: The Indus script remains undeciphered to this day.
• Decline: The civilization declined around 1900 BCE, possibly due to climate change, river course changes, or invasion.

2.3 Vedic Period (1500-600 BCE)

The Vedic Period is named after the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. This period is divided into the Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period, 1500-1000 BCE) and the Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BCE).

During the Rigvedic Period, the Aryans settled in the Sapta Sindhu region (land of seven rivers). Society was organized into tribes (Jana) led by a chief (Rajan). The four Varnas - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras - emerged during this period. The economy was primarily pastoral, with cattle being the main measure of wealth.

The Later Vedic Period saw the expansion of Aryan settlements to the Gangetic plains. Kingdoms replaced tribal organizations. Agriculture became the mainstay of the economy. The caste system became more rigid, and elaborate rituals and sacrifices became prominent. The Upanishads, philosophical texts questioning ritualism, were composed during this period.

2.4 Rise of Mahajanapadas and Religious Movements (600-321 BCE)

By the 6th century BCE, sixteen major states called Mahajanapadas had emerged in northern India. The most powerful among these were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti. Magadha, under successive dynasties, eventually became the dominant power.

This period also witnessed the rise of two major religious movements - Buddhism and Jainism. Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE) founded Buddhism, teaching the Middle Path and the Four Noble Truths. Mahavira (540-468 BCE), the 24th Tirthankara, revitalized Jainism with its emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) and asceticism.

2.5 Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE)

The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Chanakya (Kautilya), was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. Key rulers included:

• Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BCE): Founded the empire, defeated Seleucus Nicator, administered with help of Chanakya.
• Bindusara (298-272 BCE): Expanded the empire southward.
• Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE): Greatest Mauryan emperor, embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War, spread Buddhism through Dhamma policy, erected rock and pillar edicts.

2.6 Post-Mauryan Period (185 BCE - 320 CE)

After the decline of the Mauryas, several dynasties ruled different parts of India. The Shungas and Kanvas ruled Magadha. The Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas established kingdoms in northwestern India. The Satavahanas dominated the Deccan region.

The Kushan Empire under Kanishka (78-144 CE) was particularly significant. Kanishka patronized Buddhism and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council. The Gandhara school of art flourished during this period, blending Greek and Indian artistic traditions.

2.7 Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) - The Golden Age

The Gupta period is often called the Golden Age of Indian history due to remarkable achievements in art, architecture, literature, science, and mathematics.

• Chandragupta I (320-335 CE): Founded the empire, adopted the title Maharajadhiraja.
• Samudragupta (335-375 CE): Great military conqueror, patronized arts, known from the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
• Chandragupta II (375-415 CE): Known as Vikramaditya, defeated the Shakas, Fa-Hien visited during his reign.
• Kumaragupta I (415-455 CE): Founded Nalanda University.

2.8 Post-Gupta Period and Harsha's Empire

After the Gupta decline due to Hun invasions, India fragmented into numerous kingdoms. Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) of Kannauj temporarily united much of northern India. His reign is well-documented through Bana's Harshacharita and the accounts of Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang. Harsha was the last great Hindu emperor of northern India before the medieval period.

3.1 Rajput Kingdoms (7th-12th Century)

The post-Harsha period saw the rise of Rajput kingdoms across northern India. Major Rajput dynasties included the Pratiharas of Kannauj, Palas of Bengal, and Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. These three powers fought for control of Kannauj in what is known as the Tripartite Struggle. The Rajput period is known for chivalry, warrior codes, and the construction of magnificent temples.

Important Rajput rulers include Prithviraj Chauhan of Delhi and Ajmer, who fought against Muhammad Ghori in the Battles of Tarain (1191 and 1192). The second battle of Tarain marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India.

3.2 Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

The Delhi Sultanate was established after the Ghurid conquests and lasted for over three centuries. Five dynasties ruled during this period:

• Slave Dynasty (1206-1290): Founded by Qutbuddin Aibak, who began construction of Qutub Minar. Iltutmish and Razia Sultan were notable rulers.
• Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320): Alauddin Khalji expanded the sultanate to South India, implemented market reforms, and repelled Mongol invasions.
• Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414): Muhammad bin Tughlaq was known for his experimental reforms. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built canals and public works.
• Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451): Ruled a much-reduced sultanate after Timur's invasion.
• Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526): Last dynasty, ended when Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur at Panipat.

3.3 South Indian Kingdoms

While northern India experienced political changes, powerful kingdoms flourished in South India. The Chola Empire (9th-13th century) under rulers like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I reached its zenith, controlling vast territories including Sri Lanka and parts of Southeast Asia. The Cholas were known for their naval power, temple architecture (Brihadeeswara Temple), and efficient administration.

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646) was founded by Harihara and Bukka to resist the Delhi Sultanate's expansion. Its capital Hampi became one of the world's largest cities. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) was the greatest Vijayanagara ruler, patronizing literature, art, and architecture. The empire declined after the Battle of Talikota (1565).

3.4 Mughal Empire (1526-1857)

The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur, became one of the largest and most prosperous empires in Indian history. Key rulers included:

3.5 Rise of Regional Powers (18th Century)

The decline of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb led to the emergence of regional powers. The Marathas under Shivaji established an independent kingdom in the Deccan. After Shivaji's death, the Peshwas became powerful and expanded Maratha influence across India. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali, however, weakened Maratha power significantly.

Other important regional powers included the Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh in Punjab, and the Mysore Sultans - Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan - in South India.

4.1 Establishment of British Rule

The Battle of Plassey (1757) marked the beginning of British political control in India. Robert Clive's victory over Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, was achieved through conspiracy and bribery. The Battle of Buxar (1764) further consolidated British power, and the Treaty of Allahabad gave the British the Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

The British expanded their control through various methods: wars of conquest (against Mysore, Marathas, Sikhs), the Subsidiary Alliance system introduced by Lord Wellesley, and the Doctrine of Lapse implemented by Lord Dalhousie. By the mid-19th century, the British controlled most of the Indian subcontinent.

4.2 The Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, was the first major uprising against British rule. It began as a sepoy mutiny at Meerut on May 10, 1857, triggered by the introduction of greased cartridges. The revolt quickly spread across northern and central India.

Key leaders included Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, Nana Sahib, Kunwar Singh, and Bahadur Shah Zafar (who was declared the emperor by rebels). Though the revolt was suppressed by 1858, it had significant consequences: the East India Company was dissolved, and India came under direct Crown rule.

4.3 Social and Religious Reform Movements

The 19th century witnessed numerous reform movements aimed at modernizing Indian society:

• Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1828) to fight against social evils like Sati, child marriage, and promote women's education.
• Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1875) to revive Vedic traditions and oppose idol worship.
• Ramakrishna Mission: Founded by Swami Vivekananda (1897) to spread Vedantic philosophy and serve humanity.
• Aligarh Movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan promoted modern education among Muslims.

4.4 Indian National Movement

The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, became the primary vehicle for the independence struggle. The movement can be divided into three phases:

4.5 Key Events of Freedom Struggle

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful gathering, killing hundreds.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): Gandhi's first mass movement, withdrawn after Chauri Chaura incident.
• Salt March/Dandi March (1930): Gandhi marched 388 km to break the salt law, sparking Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Quit India Movement (1942): "Do or Die" call by Gandhi for immediate British withdrawal.
• INA and Subhas Chandra Bose: Indian National Army fought against British alongside Japanese forces.

India gained independence on August 15, 1947, but it came with the tragic Partition that created Pakistan. The integration of 562 princely states, the framing of the Constitution, and the establishment of democratic institutions were major achievements of the early years.

Key developments in post-independence India include: adoption of the Constitution (January 26, 1950), First Five Year Plan (1951), Green Revolution (1960s-70s), Emergency (1975-77), economic liberalization (1991), and nuclear tests (1998). Understanding this period is essential for current affairs and contemporary issues.