Indian Geography Study Guide

Indian Geography is a crucial subject for competitive examinations as it provides the foundation for understanding the country's physical diversity, resource distribution, agricultural patterns, and economic development. India, with its vast expanse of 3.28 million square kilometers, ranks as the seventh-largest country in the world by area and the second-most populous nation.

The geographical study of India encompasses its unique position in South Asia, extending from the snow-capped Himalayas in the north to the tropical beaches of Kanyakumari in the south, and from the Thar Desert in the west to the lush rainforests of the northeast. This diversity makes India a subcontinent with multiple climatic zones, varied vegetation, and rich biodiversity.

India is bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The country shares its borders with Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Sri Lanka and Maldives are India's maritime neighbors.

India's physical features can be divided into six major physiographic divisions, each with distinct characteristics that influence climate, agriculture, and human settlements.

2.1 The Himalayan Mountains

The Himalayas are the world's youngest and highest mountain range, stretching about 2,400 km from west to east. They act as a climatic barrier, protecting India from cold Central Asian winds and trapping monsoon clouds. The Himalayas are divided into three parallel ranges:

• Greater Himalayas (Himadri): The northernmost and highest range with an average height of 6,000 meters. Contains Mount Everest (8,849m), K2 (8,611m), and Kanchenjunga (8,586m).
• Lesser Himalayas (Himachal): Middle range with average height of 3,700-4,500 meters. Contains popular hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Darjeeling.
• Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks): The youngest and southernmost range with heights of 900-1,200 meters. Contains longitudinal valleys called Duns (e.g., Dehradun).

2.2 The Northern Plains

The Indo-Gangetic Plain, formed by the alluvial deposits of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems, is one of the most fertile regions in the world. Stretching about 2,400 km from west to east and 240-320 km wide, it covers an area of about 7 lakh sq km.

The plain is divided into several zones based on soil type and drainage: Bhabar (pebbly region), Terai (marshy zone), Bhangar (old alluvium), and Khadar (new alluvium). The region supports dense population and intensive agriculture due to fertile soil and adequate water supply.

2.3 The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landmasses on Earth, formed of ancient crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. It is triangular in shape, bounded by the Aravallis in the northwest, the Vindhyas in the north, and the Western and Eastern Ghats on the sides.

• Central Highlands: North of the Narmada river, including the Malwa Plateau and Bundelkhand Uplands.
• Deccan Plateau: South of the Narmada, a triangular tableland with black soil (regur) ideal for cotton cultivation.
• Western Ghats (Sahyadri): Continuous range running parallel to the western coast, average height 900-1,600m. Highest peaks: Anai Mudi (2,695m) and Doda Betta (2,637m).
• Eastern Ghats: Discontinuous hills along the eastern coast, cut by major rivers like Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi.

2.4 The Indian Desert (Thar)

The Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert lies to the northwest of the Aravalli Range, covering parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. It receives less than 150mm of rainfall annually. Key features include sand dunes, rocky terrain, and salt lakes (e.g., Sambhar Lake). The Luni River is the only significant river in this region.

2.5 The Coastal Plains

India has an extensive coastline of 7,516.6 km, divided into the Western Coastal Plain and the Eastern Coastal Plain.

• Western Coastal Plain: Narrow strip between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea. Divided into Konkan (Maharashtra), Kanara (Karnataka), and Malabar (Kerala) coasts. Contains lagoons and backwaters.
• Eastern Coastal Plain: Wider plain between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal. Divided into Coromandel (Tamil Nadu) and Northern Circars (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha). Contains deltas of major rivers.

2.6 The Islands

India has two major island groups: the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal (572 islands) and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea (36 islands). Indira Point, the southernmost point of India, is located in Great Nicobar Island.

India experiences a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. The word 'monsoon' is derived from the Arabic word 'mausim' meaning season. The Indian Meteorological Department recognizes four seasons:

3.1 Winter Season (December to February)

Cold weather season with temperatures falling below 10°C in northern plains. Western Disturbances bring rainfall to northwestern India, crucial for Rabi crops (wheat, barley). Tamil Nadu coast receives rainfall from the retreating monsoon.

3.2 Summer Season (March to May)

Hot weather season with temperatures exceeding 45°C in northwestern India. Low pressure develops over the subcontinent. 'Loo' (hot dry winds) blow across the plains. Pre-monsoon showers (Mango showers, Nor'westers) occur in different regions.

3.3 Southwest Monsoon Season (June to September)

The most crucial season for Indian agriculture. The monsoon arrives in Kerala around June 1 ('monsoon burst') and advances northwestward. India receives about 75% of its annual rainfall during this period. The monsoon has two branches:

• Arabian Sea Branch: Strikes the Western Ghats first, causing heavy rainfall on windward side. Mumbai receives about 2,000mm rainfall.
• Bay of Bengal Branch: Advances towards northeast India and turns westward along the Ganga plain.

3.4 Retreating Monsoon Season (October to November)

Also called the transition period. Monsoon withdraws from northwest India starting early October. Cyclonic disturbances in Bay of Bengal cause rainfall in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh coasts. This is the main rainy season for Coromandel Coast.

Indian rivers are classified into two major groups: Himalayan rivers (perennial, fed by glaciers and rainfall) and Peninsular rivers (seasonal, rain-fed). They can also be classified based on drainage into the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea.

4.1 Himalayan Rivers

The Indus River System

The Indus originates from the Tibetan Plateau near Lake Mansarovar. Total length is 2,880 km (only 709 km in India). Major tributaries in India: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Under the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), India can use water from Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.

The Ganga River System

The Ganga (2,525 km) is the longest river in India, originating from Gangotri Glacier as Bhagirathi. It is joined by Alaknanda at Devprayag to form Ganga. Major tributaries include Yamuna, Son, Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi. The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta (Sundarbans) is the world's largest delta.

The Brahmaputra River System

Brahmaputra (2,900 km total, 916 km in India) originates from Chemayungdung Glacier near Mansarovar. Called Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh, and Jamuna in Bangladesh. Known for braided channels and floods in Assam.

4.2 Peninsular Rivers

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy, employing about 42% of the workforce and contributing about 18% to GDP. India is among the world's top producers of rice, wheat, milk, fruits, and vegetables.

5.1 Types of Farming

• Subsistence Farming: Small landholdings, traditional methods, for family consumption.
• Commercial Farming: Large-scale production for market sale using modern techniques.
• Plantation Agriculture: Large estates growing single crops (tea, coffee, rubber).
• Shifting Cultivation: Traditional practice in northeast (Jhum), clearing forest for temporary cultivation.

5.2 Cropping Seasons

5.3 Major Crops and Their Distribution

• Rice: Leading producer states: West Bengal, UP, Punjab, Odisha, Bihar. Requires high temperature and rainfall (100-200 cm).
• Wheat: UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP, Rajasthan. Requires moderate temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall.
• Cotton: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka. Grown in black soil (regur).
• Sugarcane: UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. Tropical crop requiring high rainfall.
• Tea: Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris). Hill slopes with adequate rainfall.
• Coffee: Karnataka (70%), Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Grown in Western Ghats.

5.4 Green Revolution

The Green Revolution (1966-67 onwards) introduced High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation to boost food grain production. Led by M.S. Swaminathan, it made India self-sufficient in food grains. However, it was primarily successful in Punjab, Haryana, and western UP, and led to environmental concerns.

6.1 Mineral Resources

India is rich in minerals, with the peninsular plateau being the most mineral-rich region. Major minerals include:

• Iron Ore: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa. India is 4th largest producer globally.
• Coal: Jharkhand (Jharia, Bokaro), West Bengal (Raniganj), Odisha, MP. India is 2nd largest producer.
• Bauxite: Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh.
• Manganese: Odisha, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Goa.
• Mica: Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan. India leads in mica production.

6.2 Major Industrial Regions

7.1 Indian Railways

Indian Railways is the largest employer in India and one of the largest railway networks in the world. It operates over 67,000 km of track with 17 zones. First railway line: Mumbai to Thane (1853). Key facts: Largest railway station by platforms - Howrah Junction; Longest platform - Gorakhpur (1,366 m).

7.2 Road Network

India has the second-largest road network in the world (over 6.2 million km). National Highways form the backbone of road transport. The Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata.

7.3 Major Ports

India has 12 major ports and about 200 non-major ports. Major ports include Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Visakhapatnam, Kandla, JNPT (Nhava Sheva), and Paradip. Mumbai handles the highest volume of cargo.